Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or media organizations as determined by a censor or limitation A statute of limitations is a statute in a common law legal system that sets forth the maximum period of time, after certain events, that legal proceedings based on those events may be initiated. In civil law systems, similar provisions are usually part of the civil code or criminal code and are often known collectively as "periods of. The synonymous term freedom of expression is sometimes used to denote not only freedom of verbal speech but any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used. Freedom of speech and freedom of expression are closely related to, yet distinct from, the concept of freedom of thought Freedom of thought is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact, viewpoint, or thought, independent of others' viewpoints. It is closely related to, yet distinct from, the concept of freedom of expression. In practice, the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly subject to limitations, such as on "hate speech Hate speech is a term for speech intended to offend[citation needed] a person or group of people based on their race, gender, age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, language ability, ideology, social class, occupation, appearance , mental capacity, and any other distinction that might be considered".

The right to freedom of speech is recognized as a human right Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic, social and cultural under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris). The Guinness Book of Records describes the UDHR as the "Most Translated Document" in the world. The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and and recognized in international human rights law International human rights law is a system of laws, both domestic, regional and international, designed to promote human rights. Human rights law is made up of various international human rights instruments which are binding to its parties in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a United Nations treaty based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created on 16 December 1966 and entered into force on 23 March 1976 (ICCPR). The ICCPR recognizes the right to freedom of speech as "the right to hold opinions without interference. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression".^[1][2] Furthermore freedom of speech is recognized in European, inter-American and African regional human rights law.

The right to freedom of speech and expression

Freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law International human rights law is a system of laws, both domestic, regional and international, designed to promote human rights. Human rights law is made up of various international human rights instruments which are binding to its parties. The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is a United Nations treaty based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created on 16 December 1966 and entered into force on 23 March 1976, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms , was adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe in 1950 to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights The American Convention on Human Rights is an international human rights instrument. It was adopted by the nations of the Americas meeting in San José, Costa Rica, in 1969. It came into force after the eleventh instrument of ratification (that of Grenada) was deposited on 18 July 1978 and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights is an international human rights instrument that purports to promote and protect human rights and basic freedoms in the African continent.^[3]

The freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents, such as the British Magna Carta Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum , is an English legal charter, originally issued in the year 1215. It was written in Latin and is known by its Latin name. The usual English translation of Magna Carta is Great Charter (1215) and The Declaration of the Rights of Man The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, the rights of Man are universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature (1789), a key document of the French Revolution The French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval and radical change in the history of France, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and.^[4] Based on John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill , British philosopher, political theorist, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. He was an exponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although his conception of it was very different from Bentham's's arguments, freedom of speech today is understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right to express, or disseminate, information and ideas, but three further distinct aspects:

• the right to seek information and ideas;
• the right to receive information and ideas;
• the right to impart information and ideas.^[3]

International, regional and national standards also recognize that freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any medium, be it orally, in written, in print, through the Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standardized Internet Protocol Suite . It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, and or through art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means of expression.^[3]

Relationship to other rights

The right to freedom of speech is closely related to other rights, and may be limited when conflicting with other rights (see Limitations on freedom of speech). The right to freedom of speech is particularly important for media The news media refers to the section of the mass media that focuses on presenting current news to the public. These include print media ; broadcast media (radio stations, television stations, television networks), and increasingly Internet-based media (World Wide Web pages, weblogs), which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all (see freedom of the press Freedom of the press consists of constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to the media and published materials).^[3]

Origins and academic freedom

Freedom of speech and expression has a long history that predates modern international human rights instruments International human rights instruments can be classified into two categories: declarations, adopted by bodies such as the United Nations General Assembly, which are not legally binding although they may be politically so; and conventions, which are legally binding instruments concluded under international law. It should be noted that international. Ancient Athenians The city of Athens during classical antiquity was a notable polis of Attica, Greece, leading the Delian League in the Peloponnesian War against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Athenian democracy was established in 510 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Hippias. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief believed that the power of persuasion is the most enduring force in a culture, one that must not and can not be stifled.^[5] It is thought that ancient Athens’ democratic ideology of free speech emerged in the later 6th or early 7th Century BC.^[6] In Islamic ethics Islamic ethics , defined as "good character," historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th century. It was eventually shaped as a successful amalgamation of the Qur'anic teachings, the teachings of the Sunnah of Muhammad, the precedents of Islamic jurists (see Sharia and Fiqh), the pre- freedom of speech was first declared in the Rashidun The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four Caliphs who established the Rashidun Caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the Abbasid Dynasty. It is a reference to the Sunni tradition, "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the period by the caliph The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transliterated version of the Arabic word خليفة Khalīfah (help·info) which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following Muhammad' Umar Umar , also known as Umar the Great or Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers. He was a sahaba (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert in the 7th century The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era.^[7] In the Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic Caliphates of the Islamic Empire. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs from all but Al Andalus period, freedom of speech was also declared by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun In 802 Harun al-Rashid, father of al-Ma'mun and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. Al-Ma'mun was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-) in a letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity, or a change from one religious identity to another. Conversion implies a new reference point for one's self identity. It is a matter of belief and social structure—of both faith and affiliation. This typically entails the sincere avowal of a new belief system, but may also present through reason Reason, as used in this article, refers to mental faculties that generate or affirm propositions, by activities of the mind such as judging, predicting, inferring, generalizing, and comparing.^[8] According to George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom Academic freedom is the belief that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that academic communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape and control the flow of information. When scholars attempt to teach or communicate ideas or facts that are" in universities A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars" was "modelled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah Madrasah is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any religion). It is variously transliterated as madrasah, madarasaa, medresa, madrassa, madraza, madarsa, etc system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately-planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II The University of Naples Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. It was founded in 1224 and is organized into 13 departments. It is the world's oldest state university and one of the oldest academic institutions in continuous operation. The university is named after its founder Frederick II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II , of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was an Italian pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. As such, he was King of Germany, of Italy, and of Burgundy. He was also King of Sicily from his mother's inheritance. He was Holy Roman Emperor (Emperor of the Romans) from his papal in 1224.^[9]

Freedom of speech and truth

One of the earliest Western defences of freedom of expression is Areopagitica Areopagitica: A speech of Mr. John Milton for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of England is a 1644 prose polemical tract by John Milton against censorship. Areopagitica is among history's most influential and impassioned philosophical defences of the principle of a right to free expression (1644) by the English poet and political writer John Milton John Milton was an English poet, author, polemicist and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England. He is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost and for his treatise condemning censorship, Areopagitica. Milton wrote in reaction to an attempt by the English republican parliament to prevent "seditious, unreliable, unreasonable and unlicensed pamphlets". Milton advanced a number of arguments in defence of freedom of speech: a nation's unity is created through blending individual differences rather than imposing homogeneity from above; that the ability to explore the fullest range of ideas on a given issue was essential to any learning process and truth cannot be arrived upon unless all points of view are first considered; and that by considering free thought, censorship acts to the detriment of material progress.

Milton also argued that if the facts are laid bare, truth will defeat falsehood in open competition, but this cannot be left for a single individual to determine. According to Milton, it is up to each individual to uncover their own truth; no one is wise enough to act as a censor for all individuals.^[10]

Noam Chomsky Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics. Since states that: "If you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you don't like. Stalin Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the leader of the Soviet Union and Hitler Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), popularly known as the Nazi Party. He was the ruler of Germany from 1933 to 1945, serving as chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and as head of state (Führer und, for example, were dictators in favor of freedom of speech for views they liked only. If you're in favor of freedom of speech, that means you're in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise."^[11] An often cited quote that describes the principle of freedom of speech comes from Evelyn Beatrice Hall Evelyn Beatrice Hall, , who wrote under the pseudonym S.G. Tallentyre, was a writer best known for her biography of Voltaire. She completed her biography of Voltaire The Friends of Voltaire in 1906. She wrote the phrase, which is often misattributed to Voltaire, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say (often mis-attributed to Voltaire François-Marie Arouet , better known by the pen name Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher known for his wit and his defence of civil liberties, including both freedom of religion and free trade) "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it," as an illustration of Voltaire's beliefs.^[12]

Freedom of speech and tolerance

Professor Lee Bollinger Lee C. Bollinger is an American lawyer and educator who is currently serving as the 19th president of Columbia University. Formerly the president of the University of Michigan, he is a noted legal scholar of the First Amendment and freedom of speech. He was at the center of two notable United States Supreme Court cases regarding the use of argues that "the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self-restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters." Bollinger argues that tolerance Toleration and tolerance are terms used in social, cultural and religious contexts to describe attitudes which are "tolerant" of practices or group memberships that may be disapproved of by those in the majority. In practice, "tolerance" indicates support for practices that prohibit ethnic and religious discrimination is a desirable value, if not essential. However, critics argue that society should be concerned by those who directly deny or advocate, for example, genocide While precise definition varies among genocide scholars, a legal definition is found in the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide . Article 2 of this convention defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial (see Limitations on freedom of speech).^[13]

Democracy

One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy Democracy is a form of government in which the right to govern is vested in the citizens of a country or a state and exercised through a majority rule. It is derived from the Greek δημοκρατία (dēmokratía ), "popular government", which was coined from δῆμος (dêmos), "people" and κράτος (krátos), " is Alexander Meiklejohn Alexander Meiklejohn was a philosopher, university administrator, and free-speech advocate. He served as dean of Brown University and president of Amherst College. He argues that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. In order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society. However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal.^[14] Eric Barendt Eric Barendt is the Goodman Professor of Media Law at University College London. After gaining a Bachelor of Civil Law degree and a Master of Arts degree from the University of Oxford he began lecturing in law as a fellow at St Catherine's College, Oxford. In 1990 he left St Catherine's College to take up a position as Goodman Professor of Media has called the defence of free speech on the grounds of democracy "probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies".^[15]

Thomas I. Emerson expanded on this defence when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change. Freedom of speech acts as a "safety valve" to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution. He argues that "The principle of open discussion is a method of achieving a moral adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus." Emerson furthermore maintains that "Opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating (the) normal process of bureaucratic decay."^[16]

Research undertaken by the Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank, indicates that freedom of speech, and the process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact in the quality of governance of a country. "Voice and Accountability" within a country, defined as "the extent to which a country's citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and free media" is one of the six dimensions of governance that the Worldwide Governance Indicators measure for more than 200 countries.^[17]

Social interaction and community

Richard Moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. Moon writes that "by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others - family, friends, co-workers, church congregation, and countrymen. By entering into discussion with others an individual participates in the development of knowledge and in the direction of the community."^[18]

Limitations on freedom of speech

For specific country examples see Freedom of speech by country, and Criminal speech.

According to the Freedom Forum Organization, legal systems, and society at large, recognize limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other values or rights.^[20] Limitations to freedom of speech may follow the "harm principle" or the "offense principle", for example in the case of pornography or "hate speech".^[21] Limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction and/or social disapprobation.^[22]

In "On Liberty" (1859) John Stuart Mill argued that "...there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered."^[22] Mill argues that the fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment. However, Mill also introduced what is known as the harm principle, in placing the following limitation on free expression: "the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.^[22]

In 1985 Joel Feinberg introduced what is known as the "offence principle", arguing that Mill's harm principle does not provide sufficient protection against the wrongful behaviours of others. Feinberg wrote "It is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offense (as opposed to injury or harm) to persons other than the actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end."^[24] Hence Feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. But, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm.^[24] In contrast Mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on the harm principle.^[22] Because the degree to which people may take offense varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, Feinberg suggests that a number of factors need to be taken into account when applying the offense principle, including: the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of the offense, and the general interest of the community at large.^[22]

The Internet

International, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including the Internet.^[3]

Freedom of information

Jo Glanville, editor of the Index on Censorship, states that "the Internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech". ^[25] Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right.^[26] Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i.e. the ability to access Web content, without censorship or restrictions.^{[citation needed]}

The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 reaffirms democracy and the universality, indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Declaration also makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for the "Information Society" in stating:

"We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information Society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers."^[27]

The Internet opens new possibilities for exercising freedom of speech. The pseudonymity of the Internet allows people to communicate. Data havens (such as Freenet) and gripe sites allow free speech by guaranteeing that material cannot be removed (censored).^{[citation needed]}

Internet censorship

The concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet. Internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet.^{[citation needed]} The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) is an organization dedicated to protecting freedom of speech on the Internet. The Open Net Initiative (ONI) is a collaboration between the Citizen Lab at the Munk Centre for International Studies, the University of Toronto, the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School, the Advanced Network Research Group at the Cambridge Security Programme (University of Cambridge), and the Oxford Internet Institute, at Oxford University which aims to investigate, expose, and analyze Internet filtering and surveillance practices in a credible and non-partisan fashion.^{[citation needed]} Groups such as the Global Internet Freedom Consortium advocate for freedom of information for what they term "closed societies".^[28]

According to the Reporters without Borders (RSF) "internet enemy list" the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship: China, Cuba, Iran, Maldives, Myanmar/Burma, North Korea, Syria, Tunisia, Uzbekistan and Vietnam.^[29]

A widely publicised example is the "Great Firewall of China" (in reference both to its role as a network firewall and to the ancient Great Wall of China). The system blocks content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the Internet gateways. The system also selectively engages in DNS poisoning when particular sites are requested. The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical.^[30] Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations. In accordance with these laws, more than sixty Internet regulations have been made by the People's Republic of China (PRC) government, and censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs, business companies, and organizations.^[31][32]

See also

• Clear and present danger
• Copyleft
• Copyright
• Digital rights
• Fairness Doctrine
• Fighting words
• Fleeting expletive
• Free content
• Freedom of the press
• Gripe site
• Heckler's veto
• Imminent lawless action
• International Freedom of Expression Exchange
• Kincaid v. Gibson
• Media transparency
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• OAS Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression
• Parrhesia
• Right speech
• Security of speech (a term coined by Chinese government press for ensuring public speech or speech on media will not affect national security, see the corresponding Chinese article)
• Verbal offence

References

1. ^ OHCHR
2. ^ Using Courts to Enforce the Free Speech Provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights | Australia & Oceania > Australia & New Zealand from All Business...
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Andrew Puddephatt, Freedom of Expression, The essentials of Human Rights, Hodder Arnold, 2005, pg.128
4. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2006/feb/05/religion.news
5. ^ Murphy, James; Katula, Richard (2003), A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric, Lawrence Erlbaum, p. 18, ISBN 1880393352
6. ^ Raaflaub, Kurt; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert (2007), Origins of democracy in ancient Greece, University of California Press, p. 65, ISBN 0520245628
7. ^ Boisard, Marcel A. (July 1980), "On the Probable Influence of Islam on Western Public and International Law", International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (4): 429–50
8. ^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), "The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study" (PDF), “Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity”, Al-Akhawayn University, http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf, retrieved on 2008-01-31
9. ^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100, ISBN 074861009X
10. ^ Andrew Puddephatt, Freedom of Expression, The essentials of Human Rights, Hodder Arnold, 2005, pg.127
11. ^ Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, 1992
12. ^ Boller, Jr., Paul F.; George, John (1989). They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, and Misleading Attributions. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 124–126. ISBN 0-19-505541-1.
13. ^ Lee Bollinger, The Tolerant Society, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988
14. ^ Marlin, Randal (2002). Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion. Broadview Press. pp. 226–227. ISBN 1551113767 978-1551113760. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zp38Ot2g7LEC&pg=PA226&dq=%22free+speech%22+democracy&lr=#PPA229,M1.
15. ^ Marlin, Randal (2002). Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion. Broadview Press. p. 226. ISBN 1551113767 978-1551113760. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zp38Ot2g7LEC&pg=PA226&dq=%22free+speech%22+democracy&lr=#PPA229,M1.
16. ^ Marlin, Randal (2002). Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion. Broadview Press. pp. 228–229. ISBN 1551113767 978-1551113760. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zp38Ot2g7LEC&pg=PA226&dq=%22free+speech%22+democracy&lr=#PPA229,M1.
17. ^ http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi2007/pdf/booklet_decade_of_measuring_governance.pdf A Decade of Measuring the Quality of Governance
18. ^ Marlin, Randal (2002). Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion. Broadview Press. p. 229. ISBN 1551113767 978-1551113760. http://books.google.com/books?id=Zp38Ot2g7LEC&pg=PA226&dq=%22free+speech%22+democracy&lr=#PPA229,M1.
19. ^ Lundqvist, J.. "More pictures of Iranian Censorship". http://jturn.qem.se/2006/more-pictures-of-iranian-censorship/. Retrieved on August 2007-01-21.
20. ^ When May Speech Be Limited?
21. ^ Freedom of Speech (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
22. ^ ^{a b c d e} Freedom of Speech
23. ^ Church members enter Canada, aiming to picket bus victim's funeral
24. ^ ^{a b} Philosophy of Law
25. ^ Glanville, Jo (17 November 2008). "The big business of net censorship". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/nov/17/censorship-internet.
26. ^ Protecting Free Expression Online with Freenet - Internet Computing, IEEE
27. ^ Klang, Mathias; Murray, Andrew (2005). "Human Rights in the Digital Age". Routledge. 1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=USksfqPjwhUC&dq=%22digital+rights%22+human+rights&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0.
28. ^ "Mission". Global Internet Freedom Consortium. http://www.internetfreedom.org/mission. Retrieved on 2008-07-29.
29. ^ List of the 13 Internet enemies RSF, 2006 November
30. ^ "War of the words". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,,1713317,00.html.
31. ^ "II. How Censorship Works in China: A Brief Overview". Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/china0806/3.htm. Retrieved on 2006-08-30.
32. ^ Chinese Laws and Regulations Regarding Internet

Further reading

• Sunstein, Cass (1995). "Democracy and the problem of free speech". Publishing Research Quarterly 11 (4): 58–72. doi:10.1007/BF02680544.
• Callamard, Agnes; ARTICLE 19 (2008). Speaking Out for Free Expression: 1987-2007 and Beyond.
• Schweigl, Johan (2008). "Limits of Freedom of Expression- when it comes to flag burning" (PDF). In: A Brief Introduction to Czech Law. Rincon: the American Institute for Central European Legal Studies (AICELS): 76–89. http://www.aicels.org/aicels/Interduction_to_czech_law_-_AICELS%20-%20Abstract1.pdf.

External links

• Freedom of Speech Is It Being Abused?
• Speaking Out for Free Expression: 1987-2007 and Beyond
• Timeline: a history of free speech
• UN-Resolution 217 A III - (Meinungsfreiheit.org)
• ARTICLE 19, Global Campaign for Free Expression
• The journalist fired for calling Bush a coward after 9/11
• Banned Magazine, the journal of censorship and secrecy.
• International Freedom of Expression Exchange
• Index on Censorship
• irrepressible.info - Amnesty International's campaign against internet repression
• Organization of American States - Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression
• Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe - Representative on Freedom of the Media
• African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights - Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression in Africa
• Freedom of Speech Is It Being Abused?
• UNESCO - Programme on Freedom of Expression
• FREEMUSE - Freedom of Musical Expression
• Ringmar, Erik A Blogger's Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship in the Age of the Internet (London: Anthem Press, 2007)
• The BOBs - weblog award promoting freedom of speech
• UN undermines freedom of expression, rapporteur to nail anti-Islamic speech
• The Expressionist: India's track record
• Worldwide Governance Indicators Worldwide ratings of country performances on Voice and Accountability and other governance dimensions from 1996 to present.
• Free Speech Links - weblog linked to A Very Short Introduction to Free Speech

Categories: Civil rights and liberties | Freedom of expression | Human rights | Censorship

See Also:

• Freedom of Speech
• Freedom House
• Economic Freedom
• Freedom of Thought
• Freedom of Assembly

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